Mapping Sand Supply Chains in the Gulf Region

In the 21st century, sand has emerged as the second most extracted mineral resource globally at approximately 50 billion tonnes every year, surpassed only by water. As a fundamental requirement for modern industrialisation, it is utilised extensively in the production of concrete, as well as in glass manufacturing, infrastructure infill, water purification and as strategic inputs for high-technology sectors, including solar energy and semiconductor manufacturing.

Demand for sand is particularly high in areas of the world experiencing periods of growth and development, including across the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. In this region, the construction supply chain operates within a uniquely complex risk environment shaped by geopolitics, complex labour structures, and governance gaps. Given how resource intensive GCC countries’ economic diversification plans are - and how much sand is required to propel these projects forward - there is an urgent need for more visibility of and accountability for the social risks that exist within sand and silicate supply chains, including forced labour and unsafe working conditions.

Gulf Sustain strives to promote worker welfare in GCC countries’ economic diversification and green transition processes through research, capacity building, and collaboration. Part of Gulf Sustain’s ongoing engagements with key sectors across the Gulf region - including oil and gas, construction, renewable energy and transport/logistics - centres around assessing worker welfare and labour challenges in supply chains and engaging with businesses to advance responsible practices.

Newcastle University has been commissioned by Gulf Sustain in partnership with Design for Freedom by Grace Farms to examine the sand supply chains in relation to key Gulf countries (the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Qatar) with a focus on how it is sourced, processed, transported and used at an international level. This work builds on the OECD (2026) Due Diligence for Responsible Sand and Silicate Supply Chains report with a practical, implementation-focused view of supply chains across the GCC region.

The report aims to identify key bottlenecks and pertinent social risks within the sand supply chain, while providing recommendations for business and government to implement more sustainable practices. The findings of the report will form the basis of ongoing discussion and engagements with businesses directly and indirectly associated with sand and silicate supply chains to advance responsible business practices in this space.

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Key Findings

Risks to workers and communities linked to sand and silicate supply chains are not isolated at single points but are embedded across four stages of extraction, processing, transport, and construction, often intensifying as materials move through opaque, multi-tiered systems.

The report identified three primary labor and social risks companies operating in this sector face:

There is a significant disparity between direct employment and the total labour footprint. In some markets, the construction sector carries a footprint nearly three times its direct employment, indicating that the highest risks for labour exploitation are embedded in subcontracted tiers.

Workers in the processing and transport stages face extreme vulnerabilities. These include exposure to silica dust during crushing and grading, which can lead to adverse health related impacts (silicosis risk) , as well as extreme heat stress, and exploitative conditions for long-haul drivers in the logistics network.

Unlike higher-priced minerals, sand lacks a cohesive international regulatory framework. This allows the rise of illicit trade networks who capitalise on weak local governance and the difficulty of verifying material provenance once it enters regional processing hubs.

These risks are compounded by the sheer scale and observed growth in the region’s demand for sand and aggregates, which have frequently outpaced regulatory oversight, creating a complex ecosystem where rapid economic growth intersects with significant human rights and occupational safety vulnerabilities. Additionally, since the sand market varies significantly across the GCC countries this research assessed, the identified risks may present different challenges across contexts.

In particular, the report identifies four distinct roles within the regional trade network:

Saudi Arabia dominates regional volume, with domestic consumption peaking at approximately 600 million tonnes annually. The Kingdom’s massive requirements for major projects are primarily met through internal extraction, maintaining a trade balance near equilibrium.

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a dominant exporter, with roughly 45% of its domestic extraction destined for international markets. It simultaneously serves as a global leader in high-quality quartz and silica sand imports (holding a 15% global share) required for specialised industrial applications.

Oman has recorded significant steady growth in aggregate exports, peaking at 25 million tonnes annually. In 2019, it captured nearly 20% of the global share of aggregate exports, serving as a vital raw material supplier for its neighbours.

Qatar is structurally dependent on imports, sourcing over 50% of its consumption from external supply chains during the height of World Cup preparations. It has consistently accounted for 9–12% of all global sand and gravel imports.

Recommendations for government and business

Governments in the Gulf region occupy a key regulatory and enforcement role in mitigating social risks across sand and aggregate supply chains. The rapid growth in the extraction and construction industries and labour-intensive construction demand have potentially outpaced oversight capacity, particularly in contexts reliant on low-skilled migrant labour. To address risks of forced labour, child labour, and corruption, governments must transition from fragmented regulatory approaches to integrated, risk-based governance frameworks aligned with international standards such as the International Labour Organisation conventions (ILO, 2019) and the OECD Due Diligence Guidance (OECD, 2026).

Key actions include strengthening labour inspection regimes across all supply chain stages, particularly in extraction and transport where oversight is weakest. Governments should mandate human rights due diligence (HRDD) for all large-scale construction and quarrying operations, with legal liability extending to subcontracting tiers.

As established by the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, businesses too have the responsibility to address negative human rights impacts they cause, contribute to, or are directly linked to through their business relationships, including with suppliers and subcontractors across the supply chain.

Companies, in particular developers, contractors, and multinational firms, play a central role in shaping labour conditions through procurement, contracting, and operational practices. The construction sectors in the Gulf exhibit disproportionately large labour footprints relative to direct employment, indicating that the highest risks are embedded in subcontracted supply chains. As such, companies must move beyond compliance-based approaches toward proactive supply-chain governance aligned with the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.

A primary action is the implementation of robust human rights due diligence systems that map supply chains down to extraction and logistics levels. This includes identifying high-risk suppliers, conducting regular audits, and integrating traceability tools such as digital product passports. Contractual mechanisms should require suppliers to meet minimum labour standards, prohibit recruitment fees, and ensure safe working conditions, with clear penalties for non-compliance.

Companies must also address systemic risks linked to subcontracting. This can be achieved by rationalising supply chains (reducing excessive layers and consolidating outsourcing), ensuring direct payment mechanisms to workers, and mandating transparent wage systems. In addition, worker voice mechanisms, such as grievance channels, trade union access, and anonymous reporting systems, should be implemented and made accessible.

From an anti-corruption perspective, firms should implement strict controls over procurement and licensing interactions, particularly in extraction and transport stages where illicit practices are prevalent. ESG-linked procurement, especially in state-backed projects, offers a powerful tool to incentivise responsible sourcing. Ultimately, companies must recognise that reputational, financial, and legal risks increasingly extend beyond direct operations to the full lifecycle of materials used in construction.

Conclusion

The report highlights that the scale of sand and silicate extraction—estimated to be roughly 70,000 times the combined volume of higher-priced minerals like cobalt, lithium, and gold—creates a unique risk landscape where even a small percentage of international trade can mask significant adverse impacts. In the context of the GCC - where the execution of economic diversification plans require major construction projects that rely heavily on materials including sand - there is a high level of exposure to supply chain risks, including forced labour and poor worker welfare conditions.

Although GCC countries are not full members of the OECD, there exists numerous cooperation agreements leading to regulatory alignment with OECD standards. Consequently, there is an urgent call for importers of all scale, from the nation state to private enterprises, to move beyond traditional compliance-based models and systematically identify and mitigate labour risks, environmental degradation, and financial crimes that are currently embedded within these decentralised and often opaque global networks. Alignment with OECD recommendations on issues of sustainable and just supply chains in the sand and silicate industries is, therefore, important.

Building on the findings of this report, Gulf Sustain will continue to engage stakeholders including businesses and governments across the region to advance more responsible and sustainable practices throughout the sand supply chain and beyond.